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#51

Army Research / Re: The Size of the Roman Army...

Last post by michaellaneuk - Aug 15, 2026, 11:40 AM

Good point by dwkay57.

Paul Holder is an excellent source on the Auxilia.  If any one is interested, his books on the Roman Auxilia include:

Paul A Holder 'The Auxilia from Augustus to Hadrian' in the B.A.R. International Series published in 1980. 

Paul A Holder 'The Roman Army in Britain' Batsford, 1982.

I made great use of both books, but especially the first, when I was writing my Roman Empire Order of Battle for the Civil War 69-70 AD published by our very own Society (still available to download for free from the Society's website).😇

I recently acquired a copy of "Roman Military Diplomas IV" co written by Margaret Roxan and Paul Holder and published by the Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study at the University of London in 2003.  I bought it (it's rather expensive but ...) as I wanted to see if there were any more recently discovered Diplomas to give more details of the Roman Auxilia - not that I plan an update to my book.😊

Margaret Roxan had written the previous three volumes but fell ill before this volume was completed and indeed died in 2003.

#52

Ancient and Medieval History / Re: Linear A decipherment clai...

Last post by Duncan Head - Aug 15, 2026, 10:07 AM

And now:

https://www.labrujulaverde.com/en/2026/08/a-linear-a-inscription-found-on-the-island-of-crete-reveals-a-minoan-ritual-and-the-name-of-a-god-predating-dionysus/

This time, deciphering of a short inscription, by someone else - who seems to be working with Indo-European parallels, not Semitic.

#53

Army Research / Re: The Size of the Roman Army...

Last post by dwkay57 - Aug 15, 2026, 07:59 AM

I've just finished re-reading Alistair Moffat's "The Wall" in which he writes that the Ala Petriana which was stationed at Stanwix was the only known milliaria cavalry ala stationed in Britain.

In the late 1980's, I picked up a sheet from one of the museums along Hadrian's Wall that gave a breakdown for the Roman  Army, by province by unit type, as in AD150. The only reference is that the information was prepared by Dr Paul Holder. But for what it is worth it lists for Britannia: 1 Ala Milliaria; 11 Ala Qunigenaria; 5 Cohors milliaria equitata; 2 Cohors milliaria peditata; 20 Cohors quingenaria equitata; and 21 cohors quinqgenaria peditata. How relevant, concurrent, accurate this is I don't know, but might be interesting or otherwise.

When I last visited Housesteads on Hadrian's Wall, one of the information boards indicated that a milliaria cohort had 10 centuries. This seemed to contradict what I knew about the first cohort of a legion being 5 double centuries. I did query this with English Heritage and their response indicated that the 10 single centuries for an auxiliary milliaria cohort was based on the structure of remains of barrack blocks in the forts. Interpretation of stones in the ground and bumps in the grass is beyond me, but seems reasonable.

#54

Ancient and Medieval History / Re: Man buried near Stonehenge...

Last post by Sharur - Aug 14, 2026, 02:43 PM

It seems like quite a crass mistake to make if one had planned to bury a man....

Look, we've dug the hole now...

#55

Weapons and Tactics / Re: Infantry charging cavalry

Last post by Jim Webster - Aug 14, 2026, 09:09 AM

What is intriguing me about this episode is that it is one of the rare examples we have of infantry charging cavalry

[suggests]

#56

Army Research / Re: The Size of the Roman Army...

Last post by Monad - Aug 14, 2026, 06:09 AM

First he appears to have no knowledge at all of the composition of the then garrison of Roman Britain.  He assumes that all the auxiliary infantry are from Cohortes Equitatae each with a full strength of 480 infantry and 120 Cavalry. 

I did provide my reasoning for using the Cohortes Equitatae: "As Tacitus gives the name of a praefectus cohortis being killed, which is associated with a part-mounted quingenary cohort, Tacitus' figure of 8,000 auxiliary infantry has been interpreted to be organised into 16 part mounted auxiliary quingenary cohort (480 auxiliary infantry and 120 auxiliary cavalry."

This ignores the fact that there are also numerous Cohortes Peditatae in the Garrison of Britain

Well, as the cavalry numbers matched the infantry, I went with Cohortes Equitatae and because of the other reason given above. I have also ignored how many slaves owned by the Roman military, doctors, transports personal, carpenters and blacksmiths. This is because Tacitus did not provide numbers for them at Mons Graupius. Had he done so, I would have included them.

he ignores the likelihood that any of the Cohortes, both equitata and peditata, might have been milliara units, ie approximately double strength which again at full strength might be 800 infantry (10 centuries) for both types of auxiliary but adding 240 cavalry to the Cohors Equitata.

Can you prove a milliaria has 10 centuries?

My suspicion is that the Romans regarded Cohortes Equitatae as having more of a garrison role, their mounted contingent being useful for scouting duties from an isolated fort (or indeed forts).  I do not think therefore that all the Auxiliary infantry would have been from Cohortes Equitatae.

Suspicion is not evidence.

archaeological evidence suggests that the Milliaria Cohortes and Alae were introduced under the Flavian dynasty of which, of course, Domitian was the last and the Emperor under whom Agricola was governing Britain.

What archaeologist suggests is not evidence.

Next the cavalry which the author assumes was made up of the four 120 strong mounted contingents of all the Legiones then in Britain (which he oddly calls Equites Singulares) plus the mounted contingents of the Cohortes Equitatae which he assumes supply all the Auxiliary infantry.  Here he entirely ignores the existence in Britain of a number of Auxiliary Alae either quingenaria units of 480 horsemen or, if milliaria, 720 cavalry, again all if at full strength. 

Can you provide proof of milliaria of 720 cavalry? Second, on the Equites Singulares, please read my paper

https://www.academia.edu/124269078/The_Size_and_Organisation_of_the_Equites_Legionis_and_the_Equites_Singulares

and also this paper:

https://www.academia.edu/124417625/An_Examination_of_the_Roman_Cavalry_according_to_Hyginus

These units were undoubtedly the best cavalry in the province and would without any doubt have formed the core, if not all, the cavalry that Agricola took to Mons Graupius.

Opinion is not evidence.

I am not convinced by the suggestion that all the legionary cavalry in the province were formed into an ad hoc unit when fully trained and full strength auxiliary Alae were available, some of which were very high quality indeed.

Again opinion.

do not believe that such legionary cavalry would have been called "Equites Singulares".  Such a unit is mentioned as part of the Emperor's Guard in Rome while Tacitus does mention another such unit on the upper Danube, in either Raetia or Noricum in AD 69.

https://www.academia.edu/124269078/The_Size_and_Organisation_of_the_Equites_Legionis_and_the_Equites_Singulares

Other such units of varying strength probably existed and indeed quite likely one might have been with Agricola himself in Britain.  However who is to say?  We can but guess.

When you say "We can but guess," well that defeats your former criticism.

https://www.academia.edu/124269078/The_Size_and_Organisation_of_the_Equites_Legionis_and_the_Equites_Singulares

Finally the author assumes each Legion supplied a Vexillation of two Cohortes giving a strength of only eight Cohortes altogether - less than a quarter of the then Legionary strength in Britain.  Given this was a major campaign, I would be surprised if Agricola did not take a rather larger force of legionaries with him into Caledonia.

Again, your opinion does not make me wrong. I can tell from you reply that you have not studied all the data in the ancient sources for the principate relating to the vexillation. If you did undertake such a study, you will be better informed.

From numbers of infantry and cavalry provided by Tacitus, of which I have only worked with, and my numbers for vexillations and the cavalry adhere to the Roman military organisation of the whole period of the principate. I don't take data out of content and make it fit some preconceived theory. All the data in the ancient sources are consistent for the principate. It is one of the easiest period to understand.

You Michael, like so many other on this forum, do not address the question as to why does my data conform to Tacitus. The pattern on this forum has been to ignore them completely and try and find other superficial ways to prove I am wrong. I do understand that many do not like their preconceived reality to be challenged. Here is a question to the forum, which still has not been answered, but I will ask again. Please direct me to a study from academia that has completely examined all the data in the primary sources. My answer is there is none, and all academics writing on the Roman army have done nothing more than cherry pick the information they want that adhere to their theory. Because of this mass failing, academics have built a picture of the Roman army based on mathematical mistakes made by the ancient historians. You have built your foundations on sand.

"In 198 BC, Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus and Titus Quinctius Flaminius were elected consuls. Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus was allocated the province of Italy. Titus Quinctius Flaminius was assigned Macedonia, with 3,000 Roman infantry, 300 Roman cavalry, 5,000 allied infantry and 500 allied cavalry so as to bring the legions up to their proper strength. (Livy (32 Livy writes that the consul Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus was to be provided with a completely new consular army. Livy states the praetors on reaching their provinces were to disband the old infantry and cavalry, which means those infantry that had completed their 5th campaign and those cavalry that have completed their 6th campaign are to be discharged and sent back to Italy. The praetor Marcellus Claudius (Sicily), was to enrol 4,000 allied infantry and 300 allied cavalry. The praetor Marcus Porcius Cato (Sardinia) was to enrol 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry of the same class (allied infantry and cavalry). Livy's figures amount to 15,300 men, consisting of 14,000 infantry (3,000 Roman and 11,000 allied infantry) and 1,300 cavalry (300 Roman and 1,000 allied cavalry):

Consul Flaminius, 3000 Roman infantry, 300 Roman cavalry, 5000 allied infantry,   500 allied cavalry
Praetor Cato   2000 allied infantry   200 allied cavalry
Praetor Claudius   4000 allied infantry   300 allied cavalry

With the removal of the rounding, you get what? Anyone up to it? Also, besides the numbers, can anyone identify how many hastati, princeps, triarii and velites are included with each number? Or is it just one troop type? Why hasn't any academic studied these numbers?

#57

Ancient and Medieval History / Re: Ritual well found in Etrus...

Last post by stevenneate - Aug 14, 2026, 01:47 AM

Nice find.

#58

Army Research / Re: The Size of the Roman Army...

Last post by michaellaneuk - Aug 13, 2026, 10:13 PM

I have read the article and do think some of the assumptions made by the author are a little difficult to accept.

First he appears to have no knowledge at all of the composition of the then garrison of Roman Britain.  He assumes that all the auxiliary infantry are from Cohortes Equitatae each with a full strength of 480 infantry and 120 Cavalry.  This ignores the fact that there are also numerous Cohortes Peditatae in the Garrison of Britain,which, if quingenaria units, were each at full strength 480 strong (but with no cavalry contingent) but he ignores the likelihood that any of the Cohortes, both equitata and peditata, might have been milliara units, ie approximately double strength which again at full strength might be 800 infantry (10 centuries) for both types of auxiliary but adding 240 cavalry to the Cohors Equitata. 

 My suspicion is that the Romans regarded Cohortes Equitatae as having more of a garrison role, their mounted contingent being useful for scouting duties from an isolated fort (or indeed forts).  I do not think therefore that all the Auxiliary infantry would have been from Cohortes Equitatae.  The Cohortes Peditatae resemble the legionary cohort in organisation so might be more suited for a stand up battle. 

Though Josephus mentions Vespasian taking Milliaria units with him into Galilee at the start of his campaign during the Jewish War, archaeological evidence suggests that the Milliaria Cohortes and Alae were introduced under the Flavian dynasty of which, of course, Domitian was the last and the Emperor under whom Agricola was governing Britain.

Next the cavalry which the author assumes was made up of the four 120 strong mounted contingents of all the Legiones then in Britain (which he oddly calls Equites Singulares) plus the mounted contingents of the Cohortes Equitatae which he assumes supply all the Auxiliary infantry.  Here he entirely ignores the existence in Britain of a number of Auxiliary Alae either quingenaria units of 480 horsemen or, if milliaria, 720 cavalry, again all if at full strength.  These units were undoubtedly the best cavalry in the province and would without any doubt have formed the core, if not all, the cavalry that Agricola took to Mons Graupius. 

 I am not convinced by the suggestion that all the legionary cavalry in the province were formed into an ad hoc unit when fully trained and full strength auxiliary Alae were available, some of which were very high quality indeed. 

I do not believe that such legionary cavalry would have been called "Equites Singulares".  Such a unit is mentioned as part of the Emperor's Guard in Rome while Tacitus does mention another such unit on the upper Danube, in either Raetia or Noricum in AD 69.  I think this was a Governor's bodyguard unit and, given its location, I think it was unlikely to be as strong as an Auxiliary Ala.  Other such units of varying strength probably existed and indeed quite likely one might have been with Agricola himself in Britain.  However who is to say?  We can but guess.

Finally the author assumes each Legion supplied a Vexillation of two Cohortes giving a strength of only eight Cohortes altogether - less than a quarter of the then Legionary strength in Britain.  Given this was a major campaign, I would be surprised if Agricola did not take a rather larger force of legionaries with him into Caledonia.

#59

Weapons and Tactics / Re: Infantry charging cavalry

Last post by Duncan Head - Aug 13, 2026, 07:26 PM

Cassius Dio, 49.20:

1 In this way he met Pacorus in Syria Cyrrhestica and conquered him. For when he had not prevented them from crossing the river and had not attacked them at once after they had got across, they imputed sloth and weakness to the Romans and therefore marched against their camp, although it was on high ground, expecting to take it without resistance.
2 But when a sally was suddenly made, the assailants, being cavalry, were driven back down the slope without difficulty; and although at the foot they defended themselves valiantly, the majority of them being in armour, yet they were confused by the unexpectedness of the onslaught and by stumbling over one another and were defeated by the heavy-armed men and especially by the slingers; for these struck them from a distance with their powerful missiles and so were exceedingly difficult for them to withstand.
3 The fall of Pacorus in this struggle was a very great loss to them; for as soon as they perceived that their leader had perished, although a few men zealously fought for his body, yet when these also were slain, all the rest gave way. Some of them desired to escape homeward across the bridge and were unable to do so, being cut off and killed before they could reach it, and others fled for refuge to Antiochus in Commagene.
4 Ventidius easily brought into subjection all the rest out of Syria, which had been hesitating while awaiting the outcome of the war, by sending the prince's head about through the different cities; for the Syrians felt unusual affection for Pacorus on account of his justice and mildness, an affection as great as they had felt for the best kings that had ever ruled them.

#60

Weapons and Tactics / Re: Infantry charging cavalry

Last post by Jim Webster - Aug 13, 2026, 06:59 PM

I suspect the latter to be honest